Even if families don't sit down to eat together as frequently as before, millions of Britons will nonetheless have got a share this weekend of one of the nation's great traditions: the Sunday roast.
1 a cold winter's day, few culinary pleasures can 2 it.Yet as we report now, the food police are determined that this 3 should be rendered yet another guilty pleasure 4 to damage our health.
The Food Standards Authority (FSA) has 5 a public warning about the risks of a compound called acrylamide that forms in some foods cooked 6 hightemperatures.This means that people should 7 crisping their roast potatoes,reject thin-crust pizzas and only 8 toast their bread.But where is the evidence to support such alarmist advice? 9 studies have shown that acrylamide can cause neurological damage in mice, there is no 10 evidence that it causes cancer in humans.
Scientists say the compound is 11 to cause cancer but have no hard scientific proof.12 the precautionary principle, it could be argued that it is 1 3 to
follow the FSA advice.14 , it was rumoured that smoking caused cancer for years before the evidence was found to prove a 15 .
Doubtless a piece of boiled beef can always be 16 up on Sunday alongside some steamed vegetables, without the Yorkshire pudding and no wine.But
would life be worth living? 17 , the FSA says it is not telling people to cut out roast foods 18 , but to reduce their lifetime intake.However, its 19 risks coming across as being pushy and overprotective.Constant health scares just 20 with no one listening.
第4题答案是_____.
Even if families don't sit down to eat together as frequently as before, millions of Britons will nonetheless have got a share this weekend of one of the nation's great traditions: the Sunday roast.
1 a cold winter's day, few culinary pleasures can 2 it.Yet as we report now, the food police are determined that this 3 should be rendered yet another guilty pleasure 4 to damage our health.
The Food Standards Authority (FSA) has 5 a public warning about the risks of a compound called acrylamide that forms in some foods cooked 6 hightemperatures.This means that people should 7 crisping their roast potatoes,reject thin-crust pizzas and only 8 toast their bread.But where is the evidence to support such alarmist advice? 9 studies have shown that acrylamide can cause neurological damage in mice, there is no 10 evidence that it causes cancer in humans.
Scientists say the compound is 11 to cause cancer but have no hard scientific proof.12 the precautionary principle, it could be argued that it is 1 3 to
follow the FSA advice.14 , it was rumoured that smoking caused cancer for years before the evidence was found to prove a 15 .
Doubtless a piece of boiled beef can always be 16 up on Sunday alongside some steamed vegetables, without the Yorkshire pudding and no wine.But
would life be worth living? 17 , the FSA says it is not telling people to cut out roast foods 18 , but to reduce their lifetime intake.However, its 19 risks coming across as being pushy and overprotective.Constant health scares just 20 with no one listening.
第5题答案是____.
A group of labour MPs, among them Yvette Cooper, are bringing in the new year with a call to institute a UK "town of culture" award.The proposal is that it shoulds it alongside the existing city of culture title, which was held by Hull in 2017 and has been awarded to Coventry for 2021.Cooper and her colleagues argue that the success of the crown for Hull, where it brought in $220m of investment and an avalanche of arts, ought not to be confined to cities.Britain's towns, it is true, are not prevented from applying, but they generally lack the resources to put together a bid to beat their bigger competitors.A town of culture award could, it is argued, become an annual event, attracting funding and creating jobs.
Some might see the proposal as a booby prize for the fact that Britain is no longer able to apply for the much more prestigious title of European capital of culture, a sought-after award bagged by Glasgow in 1990 and Liverpool in 2008.A cynic might speculate that the UK is on the verge of disappearing into an endless fever of self-celebration in its desperation to reinvent itself for the post-Brex it world: after town of culture, who knows what will follow—village of culture? Suburb of culture? Hamlet of culture?
It is also wise to recall that such titles are not a cure-all.A badly run "year of culture"washes in and out of a place like the tide, bringing prominence for a spell but leaving no lasting benefits to the community.The really successful holders of such titles are those that do a great deal more than fill hotel bedrooms and bring in high-profile arts events and good press for a year.They transform the aspirations of the people who live there; they nudge the self-image of the city into a bolder and more optimistic light.It is hard to get right, and requires a remarkable degree of vision,as well as cooperation between city authorities, the private sector, community
groups and cultural organisations.But it can be done: Glasgow's year as European capital of culture can certainly be seen as one of a complex series of factors that have turned the city into the powerhouse of art, music and theatre that it remains today.
A "town of culture" could be not just about the arts but about honouring a town's peculiarities—helping sustain its high street, supporting local facilities and above all celebrating its people.Jeremy Wright, the culture secretary, should welcome this positive,hope-filled proposal, and turn it into action.
What is the author's attitude towards the proposal?
Scientific publishing has long been a licence to print money.Scientists need journals in which to publish their research, so they will supply the articles without monetary reward.Other scientists perform the specialised work of peer review also for free, because it is a central element in the acquisition of status and the production of scientific knowledge.
With the content of papers secured for free, the publisher needs only to find a market for its journal.Until this century, university libraries were not very price sensitive.Scientific publishers routinely report profit margins approaching 40% on their operations,at a time when the rest of the publishing industry is in an existential crisis.
The Dutch giant Elsevier, which claims to publish 25% of the scientific papers produced in the world, made profits of more than $900m last year, while UK universities alone spent more than $210m in 2016 to enable researchers to access their own publicly funded research; both figures seem to rise unstoppably despite increasingly desperate efforts to change them.
The most drastic, and thoroughly illegal, reaction has been the emergence of Sci-Hub,a kind of global photocopier for scientific papers, set up in 2012, which now claims to offer access to every paywalled article published since 2015.The success of Sci-Hub,which relies on researchers passing on copies they have themselves legally accessed,shows the legal ecosystem has lost legitimacy among its users and must be transformed so that it works for all participants.
In Britain the move towards open access publishing has been driven by funding bodies.In some ways it has been very successful.More than half of all British scientific research is now published under open access terms: either freely available from the moment of publication, or pay walled for a year or more so that the publishers can make a profit before being placed on general release.
Yet the new system has not worked out any cheaper for the universities.Publishers have responded to the demand that they make their product free to readers by charging their writers fees to cover the costs of preparing an article.These range from around $500 to$5,000.A report last year pointed out that the costs both of subscriptions and of these"article preparation costs" had been steadily rising at a rate above inflation.In someways the scientific publishing model resembles the economy of the social internet:labour is provided free in exchange for the hope of status, while huge profits are made by a few big firms who run the market places.In both cases, we need a rebalancing of power.
Which of the following characterises the scientific publishing model?
A．Eye fixations are brief.
B．Too much eye contact is instinctively felt to be rude.
C．Eye contact can be a friendly social signal.
D．Personality can affect how a person reacts to eye contact.
E．Biological factors behind eye contact are being investigated.
F．Most people are not comfortable holding eye contact with strangers.
G．Eye contact can also be aggressive.
In a social situation, eye contact with another person can show that you are paying attention in a friendly way.But it can also be antagonistic, such as when a
political candidate turns toward their competitor during a debate and makes eye
contact that signals hostility.Here's what hard science reveals about eye contact:
We know that a typical infant will instinctively gaze into its mother's eyes, and she will look back.This mutual gaze is a major part of the attachment between
mother and child.In adulthood, looking at someone else in a pleasant way can be a complimentary sign of paying attention.It can catch someone's attention in a
crowded room."Eye contact and smile" can signal availability and confidence,a common-sense notion supported in studies by psychologist Monica Moore.
Neuroscientist Bonnie Auyeung found that the hormone oxytocin increased the amount of eye contact from men toward the interviewer during a brief interview when the direction of their gaze was recorded.This was also found in high-functioning men with some autistic spectrum symptoms, who may tend to avoid eye contact.Specific brain regions that respond during direct gaze are being explored by other researchers,using advanced methods of brain scanning.
With the use of eye-tracking technology, Julia Minson of the Harvard Kennedy School of Government concluded that eye contact can signal very different kinds of messages,depending on the situation.While eye contact may be a sign of connection or trust in friendly situations, it's more likely to be associated with dominance or intimidation in adversarial situations."Whether you're a politician or a parent, it might be helpful to keep in mind that trying to maintain eye contact may backfire if you're trying to convince someone who has a different set of beliefs than you,"said Minson.
When we look at a face or a picture, our eyes pause on one spot at a time, often on the eyes or mouth.These pauses typically occur at about three per second, and the eyes then jump to another spot, until several important points in the image are registered like a series of snapshots.How the whole image is then assembled and perceived is still a mystery although it is the subject of current research.
In people who score high in a test of neuroticism, a personality dimension associated with self-consciousness and anxiety, eye contact triggered more activity associated with avoidance, according to the Finnish researcher Jari Hietanen and colleagues."Our findings indicate that people do not only feel different when they are the centre of attention but that their brain reactions also differ." A more direct finding is that people who scored highly for negative emotions like anxiety looked at others for shorter periods of time and reported more comfortable feelings when others did not look directly at them.
第43题答案是______.
Grade inflation —the gradual increase in average GPAs (grade-point averages) over the past few decades — is often considered a product of a consumer era in higher education,in which students are treated like customers to be pleased.But another,related force — a policy often buried deep in course catalogs called "grade forgiveness"- is helping raise GPAs.
Grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade, and the most recent grade or the highest grade is the only one that counts in calculating a student's overall GPA.
The use of this little-known practice has accelerated in recent years, as colleges continue to do their utmost to keep students in school (and paying tuition) and improve their graduation rates.When this practice first started decades ago, it was usually limited to freshmen, to give them a second chance to take a class in their first year if they struggled in their transition to college-level courses.But now most colleges,save for many selective campuses, allow all undergraduates, and even graduate students, to get their low grades forgiven.
College officials tend to emphasize that the goal of grade forgiveness is less about the grade itself and more about encouraging students to retake courses critical to their degree program and graduation without incurring a big penalty."Ultimately," said Jack Mine, Ohio State University's registrar, "we see students achieve more success because they retake a course and do better in subsequent courses or master the content that allows them to graduate on time."
That said, there is a way in which grade forgiveness satisfies colleges' own needs as well.For public institutions' state funds are sometimes tied partly to their success on metrics such as graduation rates and student retention —so better grades can, by boosting figures like those, mean more money.And anything that raises GPAs will likely make students—who, at the end of the day are paying the bill - feel they've gotten a better value for their tuition dollars, which is another big concern for colleges.
Indeed, grade forgiveness is just another way that universities are responding to consumers'expectations for higher education.Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to turn out graduates who are as qualified as possible —or at least appear to be.On this, students' and colleges' incentives seem to be aligned.
What was the original purpose of grade forgiveness?
This year marks exactly two centuries since the publication of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Shelley.Even before the invention of the electric light bulb, the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction that would foreshadow many ethical questions to be raised by technologies yet to come.
Today the rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI) raises fundamental questions:"What is intelligence, identity, or consciousness? What makes humans humans?"
What is being called artificial general intelligence, machines that would imitate the way humans think, continues to evade scientists.Yet humans remain fascinated by the idea of robots that would look, move, and respond like humans, similar to those recently depicted on popular sci-fi TV series such as "West world" and"Humans."
Just how people think is still far too complex to be understood, let alone reproduced,says David Eagleman, a Stanford University neuroscientist."We are just in a situation where there are no good theories explaining what consciousness actually is and how you could ever build a machine to get there."
But that doesn't mean crucial ethical issues involving AI aren't at hand.The coming use of autonomous vehicles, for example, poses thorny ethical questions. Human drivers sometimes must make split-second decisions.Their reactions may be a complex combination of instant reflexes, input from past driving experiences,and what their eyes and ears tell them in that moment.AI "vision" today is not nearly as sophisticated as that of humans.And to anticipate every imaginable driving situation is a difficult programming problem.
Whenever decisions are based on masses of data, "you quickly get into a lot of ethical questions," notes Tan Kiat How, chief executive of a Singapore-based agency that is helping the government develop a voluntary code for the ethical use of AI.
Along with Singapore, other governments and mega-corporations are beginning to establish their own guidelines.Britain is setting up a data ethics center.India released its AI ethics strategy this spring.
On June 7 Google pledged not to "design or deploy AI" that would cause "overall harm,"or to develop AI-directed weapons or use AI for surveillance that would violate international norms.It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.
While the statement is vague, it represents one starting point.So does the idea that decisions made by AI systems should be explainable, transparent, and fair.
To put it another way:How can we make sure that the thinking of intelligent machines reflects humanity's highest values? Only then will they be useful servants and not Frankenstein's out-of-control monster.
In David Eagleman's opinion, our current knowledge of consciousness______.
Any fair-minded assessment of the dangers of the deal between Britain’s National Health Service (NHS)and DeepMind must start by acknowledging that both sides mean well.DeepMind is one of the leading artificial intelligence(AI) companies in the world．The potential of this work applied to health-care is very great,but it could also lead to further concentration of power in the tech giants．It is against that background that the information commissioner,Elizabeth Denham,has issued her damning verdict against the Royal Free hospital trust under the NHS，which handed over to DeepMind the records of 1.6 million patients in 2015 on the basis of a vague agreement which took far too little account of the patients’ rights and their expectations of privacy．
DeepMind has almost apologized.The NHS trust has mended its ways.Further arrangements—and there may be many—between the NHS and DeepMind will be carefully scrutinised to ensure that all necessary permissions have been asked of patients and all unnecessary data has been cleaned.There are lessons about informed patient consent to learn.But privacy is not the only angle in this case and not even the most important.Ms Denham chose to concentrate the blame on the NHS trust,since under existing law it“controlled”the data and DeepMind merely‘'processed”it．But this distinction misses the point that it is processing and aggregation,not the mere possession of bits,that gives the data value.
The great question is who should benefit from the analysis of all the data that our lives now generate.Privacy law builds on the concept of damage to an individual from identifiable knowledge about them.That misses the way the surveillance economy works.The data of an individual there gains its value only when it is compared with the data of countless millions more.
The use of privacy law to curb the tech giants in this instance feels slightly maladapted.This practice does not address the real worry.It is not enough to say that the algorithms DeepMind develops will benefit patients and save lives．What matters is that they will belong to a private monopoly which developed them using public resources.If software promises to save lives on the scale that drugs now can,big data may be expected to behave as a big pharma has done.We are still at the beginning of this revolution and small choices now may turn out to have gigantic consequences later.A long struggle will be needed to avoid a future of digital feudalism.Ms Denham’s report is a welcome start.
According to the last paragraph, the real worry arising from this deal is______.
Could a hug a day keep the doctor away? The answer may be a resounding"'yes！" 1 helping you feel close and 2 to people you care about, it turns out that hugs can bring a3 of health benefits to your body and mind.Believe it or not, a warm embrace might even help you 4 getting sick this winter.
In a recent study 5over 400 healthy adults,researchers from Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania examined the effects of perceived social support and the receipt of hugs6 the participants' susceptibility to developing the common cold after being7 to the virus.People who perceived greater social support were less likely to come 8 with a cold, and there searchers 9 that the stress-reducing effects of hugging 10 about 32 percent of that beneficial effect.11among those who got a cold, the ones who felt greater social support and received more frequent hugs had less severe 12
. "Hugging protects people who are under stress from the 13 risk for colds that's usually 14 with stress," notes Sheldon Cohen, a professor of psychology at Carnegie.Hugging "is a marker of intimacy and helps 15 the feeling that others are there to help16 difficulty."
Some experts 17 the stress-reducing,health-related benefits of hugging to the release of oxytocin, often called "the bonding hormone" 18 it promotes attachment in relationships, including that between mothers and their newborn babies. Oxytocin is made primarily in the central lower part of the brain,and some of it is released into the bloodstream.But some of it 19 in the brain,where it 20 mood, behavior and physiology.
第10题选择是_____.
Could a hug a day keep the doctor away? The answer may be a resounding"'yes！" 1 helping you feel close and 2 to people you care about, it turns out that hugs can bring a3 of health benefits to your body and mind.Believe it or not, a warm embrace might even help you 4 getting sick this winter.
In a recent study 5over 400 healthy adults,researchers from Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania examined the effects of perceived social support and the receipt of hugs6 the participants' susceptibility to developing the common cold after being7 to the virus.People who perceived greater social support were less likely to come 8 with a cold, and there searchers 9 that the stress-reducing effects of hugging 10 about 32 percent of that beneficial effect.11among those who got a cold, the ones who felt greater social support and received more frequent hugs had less severe 12
. "Hugging protects people who are under stress from the 13 risk for colds that's usually 14 with stress," notes Sheldon Cohen, a professor of psychology at Carnegie.Hugging "is a marker of intimacy and helps 15 the feeling that others are there to help16 difficulty."
Some experts 17 the stress-reducing,health-related benefits of hugging to the release of oxytocin, often called "the bonding hormone" 18 it promotes attachment in relationships, including that between mothers and their newborn babies. Oxytocin is made primarily in the central lower part of the brain,and some of it is released into the bloodstream.But some of it 19 in the brain,where it 20 mood, behavior and physiology.
第19题选择是______.
"The ancient Hawaiians were astronomers," wrote Queen Liliuokalani,Hawaii's last reigning monarch, in 1897.Star watchers were among the most esteemed members of Hawaiian society.Sadly, all is not well with astronomy in Hawaii today.Protests have erupted over construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope(TMT), a giant observatory that promises to revolutionize humanity's view of the cosmos.
At issue is the TMT's planned location on Mauna Kea, a dormant volcano worshiped by some Hawaiians as the piko, that connects the Hawaiian Islands to the heavens.But Mauna Kea is also home to some of the world's most powerful telescopes.Rested in the Pacific Ocean, Mauna Kea's peak rises above the bulk of our planet's dense atmosphere, where conditions allow telescopes to obtain images of unsurpassed clarity.
Opposition to telescopes on Mauna Kea is nothing new.A small but vocal group of Hawaiians and environmentalists have long viewed their presence as
disrespect for sacred land and a painful reminder of the occupation of what was once a sovereign nation.
Some blame for the current controversy belongs to astronomers.In their eagerness to build bigger telescopes, they forgot that science is not the only way of understanding the world.They did not always prioritize the protection of Mauna Kea's fragile ecosystems or its holiness to the island's inhabitants.Hawaiian culture is not a relic of the past; it is a living culture undergoing a renaissance today.
Yet science has a cultural history, too, with roots going back to the dawn of civilization.The same curiosity to find what lies beyond the horizon that first brought early Polynesians to Hawaii's shores inspires astronomers today to explore the heavens.Calls to disassemble all telescopes on Mauna Kea or to ban future development there ignore the reality that astronomy and Hawaiian culture both seek to answer big questions about who we are, where we come from and where we are going.Perhaps that is why we explore the starry skies, as if answering a primal calling to know ourselves and our true ancestral homes.
The astronomy community is making compromises to change its use of Mauna Kea.The TMT site was chosen to minimize the telescope's visibility around the island and to avoid archaeological and environmental impact.To limit the number of telescopes on Mauna Kea, old ones will be removed at the end of their lifetimes and their sites returned to a natural state.There is no reason why everyone cannot be welcomed on Mauna Kea to embrace their cultural heritage and to study the stars.
The construction of the TMT is opposed by some locals partly because_____.
In a rare unanimous ruling, the US Supreme Court has overturned the corruption conviction of a former Virginia governor, Robert McDonnell.But it did so while holding its nose at the ethics of his conduct, which included accepting gifts such as a Rolex watch and a Ferrari automobile from a company seeking access to government.
The high court's decision said the judge in Mr.McDonnell's trial failed to tell a jury that it must look only at his "official acts," or the former governor's decisions on "specific" and "unsettled" issues related to his duties.
Merely helping a gift-giver gain access to other officials, unless done with clear intent to pressure those officials, is not corruption, the justices found.
The court did suggest that accepting favors in return for opening doors is "distasteful"and "nasty." But under anti-bribery laws, proof must be made of
concrete benefits, such as approval of a contract or regulation.Simply arranging a meeting,making a phone call, or hosting an event is not an "official act".
The court's ruling is legally sound in defining a kind of favoritism that is not criminal. Elected leaders must be allowed to help supporters deal with bureaucratic problems without fear of prosecution for bribery."The basic compact underlying representative government," wrote Chief Justice John Roberts for the court,"assumes that public officials will hear from their constituents and act on their concerns."
But the ruling reinforces the need for citizens and their elected representatives,not the courts, to ensure equality of access to government.Officials must not be allowed to play favorites in providing information or in arranging meetings simply because an individual or group provides a campaign donation or a personal gift.This type of integrity requires well-enforced laws in government transparency,such as records of official meetings, rules on lobbying, and information about each elected leader's source of wealth.
Favoritism in official access can fan public perceptions of corruption.But it is not always corruption.Rather officials must avoid double standards, or different types of access for average people and the wealthy.If connections can be bought,a basic premise of democratic society—that all are equal in treatment by government—is undermined.Good governance rests on an understanding of the inherent worth of each individual.
The court's ruling is a step forward in the struggle against both corruption and official favoritism.
The underlined sentence (Para.1) most probably shows that the court_______.
In the movies and on television, artificial intelligence is typically depicted as something sinister that will upend our way of life.When it comes to AI in business, we often hear about it in relation to automation and the impending loss of jobs, but in what ways is AI changing companies and the larger economy that don't involve doom-and-gloom mass unemployment predictions?
A recent survey of manufacturing and service industries from Tata Consultancy Services found that companies currently use AI more often in computer-to-computer activities than in automating human activities. One common application? Preventing electronic security breaches, which ,rather than eliminating IT jobs, actually make those personnel more valuable to employers, because they help firms prevent hacking attempts.
Here are a few ways AI is aiding companies without replacing employees:
Better hiring practices
Companies are using artificial intelligence to remove some of the unconscious bias from hiring decisions."There are experiments that show that, naturally, the results of interviews are much more biased than what AI does," says Pedro Domingos , author of The Master Algorithm : How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World and a computer science professor at the University of Washington.
In addition, (41)__________One company that's doing this is called Blendoor.It uses analytics to help identify where there may be bias in the hiring process.
More effective marketing
Some AI software can analyze and optimize marketing email subject lines to increase open rates.One company in the UK, Phrasee, claims their software can outperform humans by up to 10 percent when it comes to email open rates.This can mean millions more in revenue.(42)__________These are "tools that help people use data, not a replacement for people," says Patrick H.Winston, a professor of artificial intelligence and computer science at MIT.
Saving customers money
Energy companies can use AI to help customers reduce their electricity bills, saving them money while helping the environment. Companies can also optimize their own energy use and cut down on the cost of electricity.Insurance companies, meanwhile, can base their premiums on AI models that more accurately access risk. Domingos says,"(43)__________"
Improved accuracy
"Machine learning often provides a more reliable form of statistics which makes data more valuable," says Winston.It "helps people make smarter decisions." (44)__________
Protecting and maintaining infrastructure
A number of companies,particularly in energy and transportation, use AI image processing technology to inspect infrastructure and prevent equipment failure or leaks before they happen."If they fail first and then you fix them, it's very expensive," says Domingos."(45)__________"
A．AI replaces the boring parts of your job.If you're doing research, you can have AI go out and look for relevant sources and information that otherwise you just wouldn't have time for.
B．One accounting firm, EY, uses an AI system that helps review contracts during an audit.This process, along with employees reviewing the contracts, is faster and more accurate.
C．There are also companies like Acquisio, which analyzes advertising performance across multiple channels like Adwords, Bing and social media and makes adjustments or suggestions about where advertising funds will yield best results.
D．You want to predict if something needs attention now and point to where it's useful for employees to go to.
E．Before,they might not insure the ones who felt like a high risk or charge them too much, or they would charge them too little and then it would cost the company money.
F．We're also giving our customers better channels versus picking up the phone to accomplish something beyond human scale.
G．AI looks at resumes in greater numbers than humans would be able to, and selects the more promising candidates.
第44题答案是______.
Following the explosion of creativity in Florence during the 14th century known as the Renaissance, the modern world saw a departure from what it had once known.It turned from God and the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and instead favoured a more humanistic approach to being.Renaissance ideas had spread throughout Europe well into the 17th century, with the arts and sciences flourishing extraordinarily among those with a more logical disposition.(46)With the Church'steachings and ways of thinking being eclipsed by the Renaissance, the gap betweenthe Medieval and modern periods had been bridged, leading to new and unexploredintellectual territories.
During the Renaissance, the great minds of Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei demonstrated the power of scientific study and discovery. (47)Before each of their revelations, many thinkers at the time had sustained moreancient ways of thinking, including the geocentric view that the Earth was at thecentre of our universe.Copernicus theorized in 1543 that in actual fact, all of the planets that we knew of revolved not around the Earth, but the Sun, a system that was later upheld by Galileo at his own expense.Offering up such a theory during a time of high tension between scientific and religious minds was branded as heresy, and any such heretics that continued to spread these lies were to be punished by imprisonment or even death. Galileo was excommunicated by the Church and imprisoned for life for his astronomical observations and his support of the heliocentric priciple.
(48)Despite attempts by the Church to suppress this new generation of logiciansand rationalists, more explanations for how the universe functioned were being madeat a rate that the people could no longer ignore.It was with these great revelations that a new kind of philosophy founded in reason was born.
The Church's long-standing dogma was losing the great battle for truth to rationalists and scientists.This very fact embodied the new ways of thinking that swept through Europe during most of the 17th century.(49)As many took on the dutyof trying to integrate reasoning and scientific philosophies into the world, theRenaissance was over and it was time for a new era —— the Age of Reason.
The 17th and 18th centuries were times of radical change and curiosity.Scientific method,reductionism and the questioning of Church ideals was to be encouraged, as were ideas of liberty, tolerance and progress.(50)Such actions to seek knowledge and to understand what information we already knew were captured by the Latin phrase "sapere aude" or "dare to know",after Immanuel Kant used it in his essay "An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?" .It was the purpose and responsibility of great minds to go forth and seek out the truth,which they believed to be founded in knowledge.
第（46）题答案______.
It was only after I started to write a weekly column about the medical journals,and began to read scientific papers from beginning to end, that I realized just how bad much of the medical literature frequently was.I came to recognise various signs of a bad paper: the kind of paper that purports to show that people who eat more than one kilo of broccoli a week were 1.17 times more likely than those who eat less to suffer late in life from pernicious anaemia.(46)There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press,generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.
Why is so much bad science published? A recent paper, titled "The Natural Selection of Bad Science", published on the Royal Society's open science website, attempts to answer this intriguing and important question.It says that the problem is not merely that people do bad science, but that our current system of career advancement positively encourages it. They quote an anonymous researcher who said pithily : "poor methods get results ". What is important is not truth, but publication,which has become almost an end in itself.There has been a kind of inflationary process at work: (47)Nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago.Never mind the quality, then, count the number.
(48)Attempts have been made to curb this tendency, for example, by trying to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant's papers.This is the famed citation index, that is to say the number of times a paper has been quoted elsewhere in the scientific literature, the assumption being that an important paper will be cited more often than one of small account.(49)This would be reasonable if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favours.
Boiling down an individual's output to simple metrics, such as number of publications or journal impacts, entails considerable savings in time, energy and ambiguity.Unfortunately,the long-term costs of using simple quantitative metrics to assess researcher merit are likely to be quite great.(50)If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure thatour institutions encourage that kind of science.
第（46）题答案______.
Shakespeare's life time was coincident with a period of extraordinary activity and achievement in the drama.(46)By the date of his birth Europe was witnessing thepassing of the religious drama, and the creation of new forms under the incentive of classical tragedy and comedy.These new forms were at first mainly written by scholars and performed by amateurs, but in England, as everywhere else in western Europe,the growth of a class of professional actors was threatening to make the drama popular, whether it should be new or old, classical or medieval, literary or farcical.Court,school, organizations of amateurs, and the traveling actors were all rivals in supplying a widespread desire for dramatic entertainment; and (47)no boywho went to a grammar school could be ignorant that the drama was a form ofliterature which gave glory_to Greece and Rome and might yet bring honor toEngland.
When Shakespeare was twelve years old the first public playhouse was built in London.For a time literature showed no interest in this public stage.Plays aiming at literary distinction were written for schools or court, or for the choir boys of St.Paul's and the royal chapel, who, however, gave plays in public as well as at court.(48)But the professional companies prospered in their permanent theaters, and university men with literary ambitions were quick to turn to these theaters as offering a means of livelihood.By the time that Shakespeare was twenty-five, Lyly, Peele, and Greene had made comedies that were at once popular and literary; Kyd had written a tragedy that crowded the pit; and Marlowe had brought poetry and genius to triumph on the common stage —where they had played no part since the death of Euripides.(49)Anative literary drama had been created, its alliance with the public playhousesestablished,and at least some of its great traditions had been begun.
The development of the Elizabethan drama for the next twenty-five years is of exceptional interest to students of literary history, for in this brief period we may trace the beginning, growth, blossoming, and decay of many kinds of plays, and of many great careers.We are amazed today at the mere number of plays produced, as well as by the number of dramatists writing at the same time for this London of two hundred thousand inhabitants.(50)To realize how great was the dramatic activity, we mustremember further that hosts of plays have been lost, and that probably there is noauthor of note whose entire work has survived.
第（46）题答案______.
